Roman Empire (~27 BCE to ~476 CE)

A Roman Empire (~27 BCE to ~476 CE) is a classical empire that implemented imperial governance systems (to maintain territorial control across Mediterranean regions).

• AKA: Late Roman Empire, Imperial Rome, Classical Roman State.
• Context:
  • It can (typically) be preceded by a Roman Republic (509 BCE - 27 BCE).
  • It can (typically) be divided into the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) due to administrative and later, territorial and cultural differences.
  • It can (often) be associated with the Pax Romana, a period of relative peace and stability across the vast Roman territories.
  • It can (often) be considered the epitome of classical antiquity, influencing subsequent European history and beyond.
  • ...
  • It can range from being a Unified Roman Empire to being a Divided Roman Empire, depending on its administrative structure.
  • It can range from being a Pagan Roman Empire to being a Christian Roman Empire, depending on its state religion.
  • ...
  • It can be renowned for its significant contributions to law, culture, architecture, and the military.
  • It can be characterized by significant architectural achievements such as the construction of the Colosseum, Pantheon, and extensive Roman roads.
  • It can be noted for its legal system, the development of Roman law, which has influenced the legal systems of many modern countries.
  • It can be marked by the spread of Christianity as the state religion under Emperor Constantine the Great, significantly influencing the religious landscape of the empire and later, of Europe.
  • It can integrate with Provincial Governments for territorial administration.
  • It can maintain Roman Military Systems for territorial defense.
  • ...
• Examples:
  • Roman Empire (31 BCE), during the battle of actium establishing imperial control.
  • Roman Empire (27 BCE), with augustus becoming the first roman emperor.
  • Roman Empire (41 CE), under claudius beginning the conquest of britain.
  • Roman Empire (64 CE), during nero's reign experiencing the great fire of rome.
  • Roman Empire (69 CE), during the year of four emperors showing succession crisis.
  • Roman Empire (79 CE), when mount vesuvius destroyed pompeii and herculaneum.
  • Roman Empire (96-180 CE), during the five good emperors reaching peak territorial extent.
  • Roman Empire (122 CE), under hadrian constructing the northern frontier wall.
  • Roman Empire (212 CE), with caracalla's constitutio antoniniana granting universal citizenship.
  • Roman Empire (235-284 CE), experiencing the crisis of third century with imperial instability.
  • Roman Empire (285 CE), under diocletian implementing the tetrarchy system.
  • Roman Empire (313 CE), with constantine issuing the edict of milan for religious tolerance.
  • Roman Empire (330 CE), establishing constantinople as the new capital.
  • Roman Empire (376 CE), allowing gothic tribes to cross the danube as refugees.
  • Roman Empire (395 CE), permanently splitting into eastern and western empires.
  • Roman Empire (476 CE), marking the fall of western empire under romulus augustulus.
  • ...
• Counter-Examples:
  • Roman Republic, which lacks imperial governance structure.
  • Parthian Empire, which implements different administrative systems and cultural traditions.
  • Carthaginian Empire, which focuses on maritime commerce rather than territorial administration.
  • Celtic Tribal Confederations, which lack centralized authority and unified legal systems.
• See: Eastern Roman Empire, Western Roman Empire, Byzantine Empire, Vexillum, Aquila (Roman), Trajan, Vassal State.

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References

2024-12-28

• Perplexity.ai
  • Question: What led to the emergence, decline, and eventual fall of the Roman Empire, including its Golden Age, crisis periods, and lasting legacy?
  • Answer: The Roman Empire emerged from the Roman Republic when Octavian, later known as Augustus, became the first Roman Emperor in 27 BCE, marking the beginning of an era that would dramatically shape Western Civilization.
    • Historical Periods:
      • Golden Age:
        • Under Augustus's leadership, the Roman Empire entered the Pax Romana period of unprecedented stability and prosperity.
        • At its height, the empire stretched from Hadrian's Wall in Roman Britain to the Euphrates River in Roman Syria, encircling the Mediterranean Sea, known as "Mare Nostrum."
      • Decline Period:
        • The Third Century Crisis began during Commodus's reign (180-192 CE).
        • A 49-year period marked by civil wars, plagues, and barbarian invasions.
      • Economic Challenges:
        • Decreased agricultural production led to higher food prices.
        • Significant trade deficit with the Eastern Roman Empire.
        • Currency devaluation and resulting inflation.
        • Disruption of trade due to piracy and Germanic attacks.
    • Fall of Rome:
      • Germanic Invasions:
        • Increased pressure from Germanic tribes after the Huns arrived in the 370s.
        • Sack of Rome by Alaric in 410 CE.
      • Final Collapse:
        • Odoacer deposed the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, in 476 CE.
        • The Byzantine Empire continued until its fall to the Ottoman Turks in 1453.
    • Legacy:
      • The collapse marked the transition from ancient times to the Medieval Period.
      • Roman influence persisted throughout Europe, shaping:
        • Law
        • Language
        • Art
        • Architecture
  • Citations:

[1] https://digitalmapsoftheancientworld.com/ancient-history/history-ancient-rome/the-roman-empire-27-bc-476-ad/
[2] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_the_roman_empire
[3] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire
[4] https://www.worldhistory.org/article/835/fall-of-the-western-roman-empire/
[5] https://www.science.smith.edu/climatelit/rise-and-fall-of-the-western-roman-empire/
[6] https://www.ushistory.org/civ/6f.asp
[7] https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/roem/hd_roem.htm
[8] https://www.britannica.com/place/Roman-Empire/Height-and-decline-of-imperial-Rome
[9] https://www.britannica.com/place/Roman-Empire

2023

• (Wikipedia, 2023) ⇒ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire Retrieved:2023-6-16.
  • The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings around the Mediterranean Sea in Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia, and was ruled by emperors. From the accession of Caesar Augustus as the first Roman emperor to the military anarchy of the 3rd century, it was a Principate with Italia as the metropole of its provinces and the city of Rome as its sole capital. The Empire was later ruled by multiple emperors who shared control over the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire. The imperial seat moved from Rome to Byzantium and following the collapse of the West in AD 476, it became its sole capital as Constantinople. The adoption of Christianity as the state church of the Roman Empire in AD 380 and the fall of the Western Roman Empire to Germanic kings conventionally marks the end of classical antiquity and the beginning of the Middle Ages. Because of these events, along with the prevalence of Greek instead of Latin, some historians distinguish the medieval Roman Empire that remained in the Eastern provinces as the Byzantine Empire.

    The predecessor state of the Roman Empire, the Roman Republic, became severely destabilized in civil wars and political conflicts. In the middle of the 1st century BC, Julius Caesar was appointed as dictator perpetuo ("dictator in perpetuity"), and then assassinated in 44 BC. Civil wars and proscriptions continued, eventually culminating in the victory of Octavian over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. The following year, Octavian conquered the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt, ending the Hellenistic period that had begun with the 4th century BC conquests of Alexander the Great. Octavian's power became unassailable and the Roman Senate granted him overarching power (imperium) and the new title of Augustus, making him the first Roman emperor. The vast Roman territories were organized in senatorial and imperial provinces except Italy, which continued to serve as a metropole.

    The first two centuries of the Roman Empire saw a period of unprecedented stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana (). Rome reached its greatest territorial expanse during the reign of Trajan (AD 98–117); a period of increasing trouble and decline began with the reign of Commodus (177–192). In the 3rd century, the Empire underwent a crisis that threatened its existence, as the Gallic and Palmyrene Empires broke away from the Roman state, and a series of short-lived emperors, often from the legions, led the Empire. It was reunified under Aurelian (). To stabilize it, Diocletian set up two different imperial courts in the Greek East and Latin West in 286; Christians rose to positions of power in the 4th century following the Edict of Milan of 313. Shortly after, the Migration Period, involving large invasions by Germanic peoples and by the Huns of Attila, led to the decline of the Western Roman Empire. With the fall of Ravenna to the Germanic Herulians and the deposition of Romulus Augustus in AD 476 by Odoacer, the Western Roman Empire finally collapsed; the Eastern Roman emperor Zeno formally abolished it in AD 480. The Eastern Roman Empire survived for another millennium, until Constantinople fell in 1453 to the Ottoman Turks under Mehmed II.Due to the Roman Empire's vast extent and long endurance, the institutions and culture of Rome had a profound and lasting influence on the development of language, religion, art, architecture, literature, philosophy, law, and forms of government in the territory it governed. The Latin language of the Romans evolved into the Romance languages of the medieval and modern world, while Medieval Greek became the language of the Eastern Roman Empire. The Empire's adoption of Christianity led to the formation of medieval Christendom. Roman and Greek art had a profound impact on the Italian Renaissance. Rome's architectural tradition served as the basis for Romanesque, Renaissance and Neoclassical architecture, and also had a strong influence on Islamic architecture. The rediscovery of Greek and Roman science and technology (which also formed the basis for Islamic science) in Medieval Europe led to the Scientific Renaissance and Scientific Revolution. The corpus of Roman law has its descendants in many modern legal systems of the world, such as the Napoleonic Code of France, while Rome's republican institutions have left an enduring legacy, influencing the Italian city-state republics of the medieval period, as well as the early United States and other modern democratic republics.

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