Personality Trait

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A Personality Trait is a psychological attribute associated with habitual patterns of human behavior, human thought, and human emotion.

References

2024

  • (Wikipedia, 2024) ⇒ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trait_theory#List_of_personality_traits Retrieved:2024-9-23.
    • After examining thousands of personality measures and numerous personality trait frameworks, researchers have created "super-frameworks" that aim to encapsulate all personality traits into a single model (e.g., Pan-Hierarchical Five Factor Model).[1] These models also sometimes identify measures that can be used to measure traits/constructs in the models.[2]
Other examples of personality traits
Openness to experience Composed of two related but separable traits, Openness to Experience and Intellect. Behavioral aspects include having wide interests, and being imaginative and insightful, correlated with activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Considered primarily a cognitive trait.[3]
Conscientiousness Scrupulous, meticulous, principled behavior guided or conforming to one's own conscience. Associated with the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.[4]
Extraversion Gregarious, outgoing, sociable, projecting one's personality outward. The opposite of extraversion is introversion. Extraversion has shown to share certain genetic markers with substance abuse. Extraversion is associated with various regions of the prefrontal cortex and the amygdala.[5]
Agreeableness Refers to a compliant, trusting, empathic, sympathetic, friendly and cooperative nature.[6]
Neuroticism Identifies people who are prone to psychological distress. Individuals who are high in neuroticism tend to be anxious, depressed, self-conscious, impulsive, vulnerable and display angry hostility. "Neuroticism is the major factor of personality pathology."[7] Neuroticism has been linked to serotonin transporter (5-HTT) binding sites in the thalamus: as well as activity in the insular cortex.[8] Neuroticism also predicts the occurrence of more negative life experiences.[9]
Honesty-humility Tendency towards sincerity, modesty, fairness, and greed avoidance. Those who score high on this trait feel little desire to manipulate others or to break the rules for personal gain.
Self-esteem (low) A "favorable or unfavorable attitude toward oneself".[10] An individual's sense of his or her value or worth, or the extent to which a person values, approves of, appreciates, prizes, or likes him or herself".[11]
Harm avoidance A tendency towards shyness, being fearful and uncertain, tendency to worry. Neonatal complications such as preterm birth have been shown to affect harm avoidance. People affected by eating disorders exhibit high levels of harm avoidance.[12] The volume of the left amygdala in girls was correlated to levels of HA, in separate studies HA was correlated with reduced grey matter volume in the orbitofrontal, occipital and parietal regions.[13]
Novelty seeking Impulsive, exploratory, fickle, excitable, quick-tempered, and extravagant. Associated with addictive behavior.
Sensory processing sensitivity (SPS) The defining trait of highly sensitive persons, characterized by the increased depth of processing of sensory input that underlies HSPs' greater proclivity to overstimulation, emotional reactivity and empathy, and sensitivity to stimuli.[14]
Perfectionism "I don't think needing to be perfect is in any way adaptive." (Paul Hewitt, PhD)[15]

Socially prescribed perfectionism – "believing that others will value you only if you are perfect."

Self-oriented perfectionism – "an internally motivated desire to be perfect."

Perfectionism is one of the traits associated with obsessional behavior and like obsessionality is also believed to be regulated by the basal ganglia.[16]

Alexithymia The inability to express emotions. "To have no words for one's inner experience".[17] In studies done with stroke patients, alexithymia was found to be more prevalent in those who developed lesions in the right hemisphere following a cerebral infarction. There is a positive association with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), childhood abuse and neglect and alexithymia. Utilizing psychometric testing and fMRI, studies showed positive response in the insula, posterior cingulate cortex (PCC), and thalamus.[18]
Rigidity Inflexibility, difficulty making transitions, adherence to set patterns. Mental rigidity arises out of a deficit of the executive functions. Originally termed frontal lobe syndrome it is also referred to as dysexecutive syndrome and usually occurs as a result of damage to the frontal lobe. This may be due to physical damage, disease (such as Huntington's disease) or a hypoxic or anoxic insult.[19]
Impulsivity Risk taking, lack of planning, and making up one's mind quickly.[20] A component of disinhibition. Abnormal patterns of impulsivity have been linked to lesions in the right inferior frontal gyrus and in studies done by Antonio Damasio author of Descartes' Error, damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex has been shown to cause a defect in real-life decision making in individuals with otherwise normal intellect. Those who sustain this type of damage are oblivious to the future consequences of their actions and live in the here and now.[21]
Disinhibition Behavioral disinhibition is an inability or unwillingness to constrain impulses, it is a key component of executive functioning. Researchers have emphasized poor behavioral inhibition as the central impairment of ADHD. It may be symptomatic of orbitofrontal lobe syndrome, a subtype of frontal lobe syndrome which may be an acquired disorder as a result of traumatic brain injury, hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy (HIE), anoxic encephalopathy, degenerative diseases such as Parkinson's, bacterial or viral infections such as Lyme disease and neurosyphilis. Disinhibition has been consistently associated with substance abuse disorders, obesity, higher BMI, excessive eating, an increased rate of eating, and perceived hunger.[22]
Psychoticism Psychoticism is a personality pattern typified by aggressiveness and interpersonal hostility, one of four traits in Hans Eysenck's model of personality. High levels of this trait were believed by Eysenck to be linked to increased vulnerability to psychosis such as schizophrenia. He also believed that blood relatives of psychotics would show high levels of this trait, suggesting a genetic basis to the trait.[23]
Obsessionality Persistent, often unwelcome, and frequently disturbing ideas, thoughts, images or emotions, rumination, often inducing an anxious state. Obsessionality may result as a dysfunction of the basal ganglia.[24]

2017

  • (Wikipedia, 2017) ⇒ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trait_theory Retrieved:2017-9-12.
    • In psychology, trait theory (also called dispositional theory) is an approach to the study of human personality. Trait theorists are primarily interested in the measurement of traits, which can be defined as habitual patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion. [25] According to this perspective, traits are relatively stable over time, differ across individuals (e.g. some people are outgoing whereas others are not), and influence behavior. Traits are in contrast to states which are more transitory dispositions.

      In some theories and systems, traits are something a person either has or does not have, but in many others traits are dimensions such as extraversion vs. introversion, with each person rating somewhere along this spectrum.

2015a

  • (Wikipedia, 2015) ⇒ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/personality_type Retrieved:2015-11-7.
    • Personality type refers to the psychological classification of different types of individuals. Personality types are sometimes distinguished from personality traits, with the latter embodying a smaller grouping of behavioral tendencies. Types are sometimes said to involve qualitative differences between people, whereas traits might be construed as quantitative differences. [26] According to type theories, for example, introverts and extraverts are two fundamentally different categories of people. According to trait theories, introversion and extraversion are part of a continuous dimension, with many people in the middle.
  1. ↑ Stanek, Kevin; Ones, Deniz (2023-11-20). Of Anchors & Sails: Personality-Ability Trait Constellations. University of Minnesota. doi:10.24926/9781946135988. ISBN 978-1-946135-98-8. https://umnlibraries.manifoldapp.org/projects/of-anchors-and-sails. 
  2. ↑ Template:Citation
  3. ↑ DeYoung, C. G.; Peterson, J. B.; Higgins, D. M. (Aug 2005). "Sources of openness/intellect: cognitive and neuropsychological correlates of the fifth factor of personality". Journal of Personality 73 (4): 825–58. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00330.x. PMID 15958136. 
  4. ↑ Template:Multiref2
  5. ↑ Template:Multiref2
  6. ↑ Template:Multiref2
  7. ↑ Eysenck, Sybil B. G.; Eysenck, H. J. (1969). "Scores on Three Personality Variables as a Function of Age, Sex and Social Class". British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology (Wiley) 8 (1): 69–76. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8260.1969.tb00588.x. ISSN 0007-1293. PMID 5781476. 
  8. ↑ Template:Multiref2
  9. ↑ Jeronimus, B. F.; Riese, H.; Sanderman, R.; Ormel, J. (2014). "Mutual Reinforcement Between Neuroticism and Life Experiences: A Five-Wave, 16-Year Study to Test Reciprocal Causation". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 107 (4): 751–64. doi:10.1037/a0037009. PMID 25111305. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264627671. 
  10. ↑ Rosenberg, Morris (1968). Society and the Adolescent Self-Image. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. p. 18. ISBN 0691028052. https://archive.org/details/societyadolescen0000rose_m3e5. 
  11. ↑ Template:Multiref2
  12. ↑ Bulik, C. M. (1997). "Eating disorders and antecedent anxiety disorders: a controlled study". Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 96 (2): 101–107. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.1997.tb09913.x. PMID 9272193. 
  13. ↑ Template:Multiref2
  14. ↑ Template:Multiref2
  15. ↑ Benson, Etienne (November 2003). "The many faces of perfectionism". Monitor on Psychology 34 (10). 
  16. ↑ Template:Multiref2
  17. ↑ Muller, Rene J. (2000). "When a patient has no story to tell: Alexithymia". Psychiatric Times 17 (7): 1–6. 
  18. ↑ Template:Multiref2
  19. ↑ Template:Multiref2
  20. ↑ Eysenck, S. B.; Eysenck, H. J. (Feb 1977). "The place of impulsiveness in a dimensional system of personality description". British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 16 (1): 57–68. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8260.1977.tb01003.x. PMID 843784. 
  21. ↑ Template:Multiref2
  22. ↑ Template:Multiref2
  23. ↑ Template:Multiref2
  24. ↑ Template:Multiref2
  25. ↑ Saul Kassin, (2003). Psychology. USA: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  26. ↑ Bernstein, Penner, Clarke-Stewart, & Roy (2008). Psychology, 8th edition. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company.

2015b

Personality Traits
Openness to experience Composed of two related but separable traits, Openness to Experience and Intellect. Behavioral aspects include having wide interests, and being imaginative and insightful, correlated with activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Considered primarily a cognitive trait.[1]
Conscientiousness Scrupulous, meticulous, principled behavior guided or conforming to one's own conscience. Associated with the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Anorexics are noted to have higher levels of conscientiousness.[2][3][4]
Extraversion Gregarious, outgoing, sociable, projecting one's personality outward. The opposite of extraversion is introversion. Extraversion has shown to share certain genetic markers with substance abuse. Extraversion is associated with various regions of the prefrontal cortex and the amygdala.[5][6][7]
Agreeableness Refers to a compliant, trusting, empathic, sympathetic, friendly and cooperative nature.[8][9][10]
Neuroticism "Refers to an individual's tendency to become upset or emotional" (Hans Eysenck) "Neuroticism is the major factor of personality pathology" (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1969). Neuroticism has been linked to serotonin transporter (5-HTT) binding sites in the thalamus: as well as activity in the insular cortex.[11][12][13] Neuroticism also predicts the occurrence of more negative life experiences.[14]
Self-esteem (low) A "favorable or unfavorable attitude toward the self" (Rosenberg, 1965). An individual's sense of his or her value or worth, or the extent to which a person values, approves of, appreciates, prizes, or likes him or herself" (Blascovich & Tomaka, 1991).[15][16][17]
Harm avoidance A tendency towards shyness, being fearful and uncertain, tendency to worry. Neonatal complications such as preterm birth have been shown to affect harm avoidance. People affected by eating disorders exhibit high levels of harm avoidance.[18] The volume of the left amygdala in girls was correlated to levels of HA, in separate studies HA was correlated with reduced grey matter volume in the orbito-frontal, occipital and parietal regions.[19][20][21][22]
Novelty seeking Impulsive, exploratory, fickle, excitable, quick-tempered, and extravagant. Associated with addictive behavior.
Perfectionism "I don't think needing to be perfect is in any way adaptive" (Paul Hewitt, PhD)

Socially prescribed perfectionism – "believing that others will value you only if you are perfect."

Self-oriented perfectionism – "an internally motivated desire to be perfect. 


 Perfectionism is one of the traits associated with obsessional behavior and like obsessionality is also believed to be regulated by the basal ganglia.[23][24][25]
Alexithymia The inability to express emotions. “To have no words for one's inner experience" (Rený J. Muller PhD). In studies done with stroke patients, alexithymia was found to be more prevalent in those who developed lesions in the right hemisphere following a cerebral infarction. There is a positive association with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), childhood abuse and neglect and alexithymia. Utilizing psychometric testing and fMRI, studies showed positive response in the insula, posterior cingulate cortex (PCC), and thalamus.[26][27][28]
Rigidity Inflexibility, difficulty making transitions, adherence to set patterns. Mental rigidity arises out of a deficit of the executive functions. Originally termed frontal lobe syndrome it is also referred to as dysexecutive syndrome and usually occurs as a result of damage to the frontal lobe. This may be due to physical damage, disease (such as Huntington's disease) or a hypoxic or anoxic insult.[29][30][31][32]
Impulsivity Risk taking, lack of planning, and making up one's mind quickly (Eysenck and Eysenck). A component of disinhibition. Abnormal patterns of impulsivity have been linked to lesions in the right inferior frontal gyrus and in studies done by Antonio Damasio author of Descartes Error, damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex has been shown to cause a defect in real-life decision making in individuals with otherwise normal intellect. Those who sustain this type of damage are oblivious to the future consequences of their actions and live in the here and now.[33][34][35][36][37][38]
Disinhibition Behavioral dis-inhibition is an inability or unwillingness to constrain impulses, it is a key component of executive functioning. Researchers have emphasized poor behavioral inhibition as the central impairment of ADHD. It may be symptomatic of orbitofrontal lobe syndrome, a subtype of frontal lobe syndrome which may be an acquired disorder as a result of traumatic brain injury, hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy (HIE), anoxic encephalopathy, degenerative diseases such as Parkinson's, bacterial or viral infections such as Lyme disease and neurosyphilis. Disinhibition has been consistently associated with substance abuse disorders, obesity, higher BMI, excessive eating, an increased rate of eating, and perceived hunger.[39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46]
Psychoticism Psychoticism is a personality pattern typified by aggressiveness and interpersonal hostility, one of four traits in Hans Eysenck's model of personality. High levels of this trait were believed by Eysenck to be linked to increased vulnerability to psychosis such as schizophrenia. He also believed that blood relatives of psychotics would show high levels of this trait, suggesting a genetic basis to the trait.[47][48]
Obsessionality Persistent, often unwelcome, and frequently disturbing ideas, thoughts, images or emotions, rumination, often inducing an anxious state. Obsessionality may result as a dysfunction of the basal ganglia.[49][50][51]

2013

  1. ↑ DeYoung CG, Peterson JB, Higgins DM.J Pers. Sources of openness/intellect: cognitive and neuropsychological correlates of the fifth factor of personality.2005 Aug;73(4):825-58. Template:DOI PMID 15958136
  2. ↑ MacLaren VV, Best LA.Female students' disordered eating and the big five personality facets. Eat Behav. 2009 Aug;10(3):192-5. Epub 2009 Apr 17.PMID 19665103
  3. ↑ Heaven PC, Mulligan K, Merrilees R, Woods T, Fairooz Y. Neuroticism and conscientiousness as predictors of emotional, external, and restrained eating behaviors. Int J Eat Disord. 2001 Sep;30(2):161-6.PMID 11449449
  4. ↑ Casper RC, Hedeker D, McClough JF. Personality dimensions in eating disorders and their relevance for subtyping. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1992 Sep;31(5):830-40.PMID 1400113
  5. ↑ Luo X, Kranzler HR, Zuo L, Wang S, Gelernter J. Personality Traits of Agreeableness and Extraversion are Associated with ADH4 VariationBiol Psychiatry. 2007 Mar 1;61(5):599–608. Epub 2006 Oct 25. Template:DOI PMID 17069770
  6. ↑ Wright CI. et al. Neuroanatomical correlates of extraversion and neuroticism. Cereb Cortex. 2006 Dec;16(12):1809–19. Epub 2006 Jan 18.PMID 16421327
  7. ↑ Mendez MF, Chen AK, Shapira JS, Lu PH, Miller BL.Acquired extroversion associated with bitemporal variant of frontotemporal dementia. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2006 Winter;18(1):100-7.PMID 16525077
  8. ↑ Rankin KP. et al. Right and left medial orbitofrontal volumes show an opposite relationship to agreeableness in FTD. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2004;17(4):328-32.PMID 15178947
  9. ↑ Graziano WG, Tobin RM.Agreeableness: dimension of personality or social desirability artifact? Bergeman CS et al. Genetic and environmental effects on openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness: an adoption/twin study. J Pers. 1993 Jun;61(2):159-79.PMID 8345444
  10. ↑ J Pers. 2002 Oct;70(5):695–727. PMID 12322857
  11. ↑ Miller JL et al. Neuroticism and introversion: a risky combination for disordered eating among a non-clinical sample of undergraduate women. Eat Behav. 2006 Jan;7(1):69–78. Epub 2005 Aug 1. PMID 16360625
  12. ↑ Takano A, et al. Relationship between neuroticism personality trait and serotonin transporter binding. Biol Psychiatry. 2007 Sep 15;62(6):588-92. Epub 2007 Mar 6. Template:DOI PMID 17336939
  13. ↑ Deckersbach T, et al. Regional cerebral brain metabolism correlates of neuroticism and extraversion. Depress Anxiety. 2006;23(3):133-8. PMID 16470804
  14. ↑ Jeronimus, B.F.; Riese, H.; Sanderman, R.; Ormel, J. (2014). "Mutual Reinforcement Between Neuroticism and Life Experiences: A Five-Wave, 16-Year Study to Test Reciprocal Causation". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 107 (4): 751–64. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264627671_Mutual_Reinforcement_Between_Neuroticism_and_Life_Experiences_A_Five-Wave_16-Year_Study_to_Test_Reciprocal_Causation. 
  15. ↑ Button EJ Self-esteem, eating problems and psychological wellbeing in a cohort of school age 15–16: question and interview PMID 8986516Int J Eat Disord 1997 Jan;21(1):39–41
  16. ↑ Strober M.,Personality factors in anorexia nervosa.,Pediatrician. 1983–1985;12(2–3):134-8. PMID 6400211
  17. ↑ Eiber R et al. Self-esteem: a comparison study between eating disorders and social phobia. Encephale. 2003 Jan–Feb; 29(1):35–41. PMID 12640325
  18. ↑ Bulik, C. M. et al, Eating disorders and antecedent anxiety disorders: a controlled study Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica Volume 96, Issue 2, pages 101–107, August 1997Template:DOI
  19. ↑ Favaro A, Tenconi E, Santonastaso P. The relationship between obstetric complications and temperament in eating disorders: a mediation hypothesis. Psychosom Med. 2008 Apr;70(3):372-7. Epub 2008 Feb 6. Template:DOI PMID 18256341
  20. ↑ Iidaka T. et al. Volume of left amygdala subregion predicted temperamental trait of harm avoidance in female young subjects. A voxel-based morphometry study. Brain Res. 2006 Dec 13; 1125(1):85–93. Epub 2006 Nov 17.PMID 17113049
  21. ↑ Peterson CB. Personality dimensions in bulimia nervosa, binge eating disorder, and obesity. Compr Psychiatry. 2010 Jan–Feb; 51(1):31-6. Epub 2009 May 2. PMID 19932823
  22. ↑ Gardini S, Cloninger CR, Venneri A. Individual differences in personality traits reflect structural variance in specific brain regions. Brain Res Bull. 2009 Jun 30; 79(5):265-70. Epub 2009 Mar 28. PMID 19480986
  23. ↑ Halmi KA et al. Perfectionism in anorexia nervosa: variation by clinical subtype, obsessionality, and pathological eating behavior. Am J Psychiatry. 2000 Nov;157(11):1799-805. PMID 11058477
  24. ↑ Ruggiero GM. et al. Stress situation reveals an association between perfectionism and drive for thinness. Int J Eat Disord. 2003 Sep;34(2):220-6. PMID 12898558
  25. ↑ Hewitt PL et al. “The impact of perfectionistic self-presentation on the cognitive, affective, and physiological experience of a clinical interview Psychiatry. 2008 Summer;71(2):93–122. PMID 18573033
  26. ↑ Frewen PA, Pain C, Dozois DJ, Lanius RA. Alexithymia in PTSD: psychometric and FMRI studies. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2006 Jul;1071:397–400.PMID 16891585
  27. ↑ O Guilbaud et al. Alexithymia and depression in eating disorders Encephale. 2000 Sep–Oct(5);1–6 PMID 11192799
  28. ↑ Smith GJ et al. Alexithymia in patients with eating disorders: an investigation using a new projective technique. Percept Mot Skills. 1997 Aug; 85(1):247-56. PMID 9293583
  29. ↑ Peskine A, Picq C, Pradat-Diehl P.Brain Inj. Cerebral anoxia and disability. 2004 Dec;18(12):1243–54.PMID 15666568
  30. ↑ Ho AK, Robbins AO, Barker RAHuntington's disease patients have selective problems with insightMov Disord. 2006 Mar;21(3):385-9. PMID 16211608
  31. ↑ Tchanturia K et al. Perceptual illusions in eating disorders: rigid and fluctuating styles Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry. 2001 Sep;32(3):107-15. PMID 11934124
  32. ↑ Cserjési R.Affect, cognition, awareness and behavior in eating disorders. Comparison between obesity and anorexia nervosa. Orv Hetil. 2009 Jun 1;150(24):1135–43. PMID 19482720
  33. ↑ Bechara A, Damasio AR, Damasio H, Anderson SW. Insensitivity to future consequences following damage to human prefrontal cortex. Cognition. 1994 Apr–Jun; 50(1–3):7–15.PMID 8039375
  34. ↑ Eysenck SB, Eysenck HJ. The place of impulsiveness in a dimensional system of personality description Br J Soc Clin Psychol. 1977 Feb;16(1):57–68. PMID 843784
  35. ↑ Welch SL, Fairburn CG. Impulsivity or comorbidity in bulimia nervosa. A controlled study of deliberate self-harm and alcohol and drug misuse in a community sample. Br J Psychiatry. 1996 Oct;169(4):451-8. PMID 8894196
  36. ↑ Corstorphine E et al. Trauma and multi-impulsivity in the eating disorders. Eat Behav. 2007 Jan;8(1):23–30. Epub 2004 Sep 22. PMID 17174848
  37. ↑ Patton JH, Stanford MS, Barratt ES. J Clin Psychol. 1995 Nov;51(6):768-74. Factor structure of the Barratt impulsiveness scale. PMID 8778124
  38. ↑ Chamberlain SR, Sahakian BJ. The neuropsychiatry of impulsivity Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2007 May;20(3):255-61. PMID 17415079
  39. ↑ Smith CF. Association of dietary restraint and disinhibition with eating behavior, body mass, and hunger. Eat Weight Disord. 1998 Mar;3(1):7–15.PMID 11234257
  40. ↑ Bryant EJ, King NA, Blundell JE. Disinhibition: its effects on appetite and weight regulation. Obes Rev. 2008 Sep; 9(5):409-19. Epub 2007 Dec 26. PMID 18179615
  41. ↑ Personality and substance dependence symptoms: modeling substance-specific traits. Grekin ER, Sher KJ, Wood PK. Psychol Addict Behav. 2006 Dec; 20(4):415-24.PMID 17176176
  42. ↑ Young SE et al. Genetic and environmental influences on behavioral disinhibition Am J Med Genet. 2000 Oct 9; 96(5):684-95.PMID 11054778
  43. ↑ Young SE et al. Behavioral disinhibition: liability for externalizing spectrum disorders and its genetic and environmental relation to response inhibition across adolescence. J Abnorm Psychol. 2009 Feb; 118(1):117-30. PMID 19222319
  44. ↑ Emond V, Joyal C, Poissant H. Structural and functional neuroanatomy of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) Encephale. 2009 Apr;35(2):107-14. Epub 2008 Jul 7. PMID 19393378
  45. ↑ Spiegel DR., Qureshi N., The successful treatment of disinhibition due to a possible case of non-human immunodeficiency virus neurosyphilis: a proposed pathophysiological explanation of the symptoms and treatment. Template:Doi
  46. ↑ Aarsland D, Litvan I, Larsen JP Neuropsychiatric symptoms of patients with progressive supranuclear palsy and Parkinson's disease. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2001 Winter; 13(1):42-9.PMID 11207328
  47. ↑ Eysenck, H.J, Eysenck, S.B.G (1977). Psychoticism as a Dimension of Personality. London: Hodder and Stoughton. ISBN 0-340-20919-4. 
  48. ↑ Lester, David (1989). "A NEUROTRANSMITTER BASIS FOR EYSENCK'S THEORY OF PERSONALITY". Psychological Reports 64 (1): 189–190. doi:10.2466/pr0.1989.64.1.189. ISSN 0033-2941. PMID 2564688. 
  49. ↑ Zubieta JK. Obsessionality in eating-disorder patients: relationship to clinical presentation and two-year outcome. J Psychiatr Res. 1995 Jul–Aug; 29(4):333-42.PMID 8847659
  50. ↑ Salkovskis PM, Forrester E, Richards C. Cognitive-behavioural approach to understanding obsessional thinking. Br J Psychiatry Suppl. 1998;(35):53–63. PMID 9829027
  51. ↑ Corcoran KM, Woody SR. Appraisals of obsessional thoughts in normal samples. Behav Res Ther. 2008 Jan; 46(1):71–83. PMID 18093572
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