Attention Deficit Hyperactivity (ADHD) Disorder

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An Attention Deficit Hyperactivity (ADHD) Disorder is a cognitive disorder that is characterized by excessive amounts of inattention, carelessness, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that are pervasive, impairing in multiple contexts

References

2022

  • (Wikipedia, 2022) ⇒ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder Retrieved:2022-7-17.
    • Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by excessive amounts of inattention, carelessness, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that are pervasive, impairing in multiple contexts, and otherwise age-inappropriate.[1] [2] [3][4][5] Foreman DM (February 2006). “Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: legal and ethical aspects". Archives of Disease in Childhood. 91 (2): 192–194. doi:10.1136/adc.2004.064576. PMC 2082674. PMID 16428370.</ref>

      ADHD symptoms arise from executive dysfunction,[6][7][8][9] and emotional dysregulation is considered a core symptom.[10] In children, problems paying attention may result in poor school performance. ADHD is associated with other mental disorders and substance use disorders, which can cause additional impairment, especially in modern society. Although people with ADHD struggle to focus on tasks they are not particularly interested in completing, they are often able to maintain an unusually prolonged and intense level of attention for tasks they do find interesting or rewarding; this is known as hyperfocus.

      The precise causes of ADHD are unknown in the majority of cases.[11] Genetic factors play an important role; ADHD tends to run in families and has a heritability rate of 74%. Toxins and infections during pregnancy and brain damage may be environmental risks. It affects about 5–7% of children when diagnosed via the DSM-IV criteria and 1–2% when diagnosed via the ICD-10 criteria. Rates are similar between countries and differences in rates depend mostly on how it is diagnosed.[12] ADHD is diagnosed approximately twice as often in boys than in girls, and 1.6 times more often in men than in women, although the disorder is overlooked in girls or diagnosed in later life because their symptoms sometimes differ from diagnostic criteria. [13] [14] About 30–50% of people diagnosed in childhood continue to have ADHD in adulthood, with 2.58% of adults estimated to have ADHD which began in childhood.[15] In adults, hyperactivity is usually replaced by inner restlessness, and adults often develop coping skills to compensate for their impairments. The condition can be difficult to tell apart from other conditions, as well as from high levels of activity within the range of normal behavior. ADHD management recommendations vary and usually involve some combination of medications, counseling, and lifestyle changes.[16] The British guideline emphasizes environmental modifications and education for individuals and carers about ADHD as the first response. If symptoms persist, parent-training, medication, or psychotherapy (especially cognitive behavioral therapy) can be recommended based on age. Canadian and American guidelines recommend medications and behavioral therapy together, except in preschool-aged children for whom the first-line treatment is behavioral therapy alone.[17] [18] [19] Stimulant medications are the most effective pharmaceutical treatment,[20] although there may be side effects[20] [21] [22] [23] and any improvements will be reverted if medication is ceased.[5] ADHD, its diagnosis, and its treatment have been considered controversial since the 1970s. These controversies have involved doctors, teachers, policymakers, parents, and the media. Topics have included causes of ADHD and the use of stimulant medications in its treatment. ADHD is now a well-validated clinical diagnosis in children and adults, and the debate in the scientific community mainly centers on how it is diagnosed and treated.[24] [25] ADHD was officially known as attention deficit disorder (ADD) from 1980 to 1987; prior to the 1980s, it was known as hyperkinetic reaction of childhood. Symptoms similar to those of ADHD have been described in medical literature dating back to the 18th century.

  1. ↑ Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing. 2013. pp. 59–65. ISBN 978-0-89042-555-8.
  2. ↑ Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-5-TR). Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Publishing. February 2022. ISBN 978-0-89042-575-6. OCLC 1288423302
  3. ↑ "6A05 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder". International Classification of Diseases 11th Revision. February 2022 [2019]. Archived from the original on 1 August 2018. Retrieved 8 May 2022.
  4. ↑ Parrillo VN (2008). Encyclopedia of Social Problems. SAGE. p. 63. ISBN 9781412941655. Archived from the original on 4 January 2020. Retrieved 2 May 2009.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Mayes R, Bagwell C, Erkulwater J (2008). “ADHD and the rise in stimulant use among children". Harvard Review of Psychiatry. 16 (3): 151–166. doi:10.1080/10673220802167782. PMID 18569037. S2CID 18481191.
  6. ↑ Brown TE (October 2008). ["ADD/ADHD and Impaired Executive Function in Clinical Practice"]. Current Psychiatry Reports. 10 (5): 407–411. doi:10.1007/s11920-008-0065-7. PMID 18803914. S2CID 146463279.
  7. ↑ Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). “Chapters 10 and 13". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.). Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 266, 315, 318–323. ISBN 978-0-07-148127-4. Early results with structural MRI show thinning of the cerebral cortex in ADHD subjects compared with age-matched controls in prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex, areas involved in working memory and attention.
  8. ↑ Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). “Chapter 6: Widely Projecting Systems: Monoamines, Acetylcholine, and Orexin". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.). Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 148, 154–157. ISBN 978-0-07-148127-4. DA has multiple actions in the prefrontal cortex. It promotes the 'cognitive control' of behavior: the selection and successful monitoring of behavior to facilitate attainment of chosen goals. Aspects of cognitive control in which DA plays a role include working memory, the ability to hold information 'on line' in order to guide actions, suppression of prepotent behaviors that compete with goal-directed actions, and control of attention and thus the ability to overcome distractions. Cognitive control is impaired in several disorders, including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. ... Noradrenergic projections from the LC thus interact with dopaminergic projections from the VTA to regulate cognitive control. ... it has not been shown that 5HT makes a therapeutic contribution to treatment of ADHD".
  9. ↑ Diamond A (2013). "Executive functions". Annual Review of Psychology. 64: 135–168. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750. PMC 4084861. PMID 23020641. EFs and prefrontal cortex are the first to suffer, and suffer disproportionately, if something is not right in your life. They suffer first, and most, if you are stressed (Arnsten 1998, Liston et al. 2009, Oaten & Cheng 2005), sad (Hirt et al. 2008, von Hecker & Meiser 2005), lonely (Baumeister et al. 2002, Cacioppo & Patrick 2008, Campbell et al. 2006, Tun et al. 2012), sleep deprived (Barnes et al. 2012, Huang et al. 2007), or not physically fit (Best 2010, Chaddock et al. 2011, Hillman et al. 2008). Any of these can cause you to appear to have a disorder of EFs, such as ADHD, when you do not".
  10. ↑ Retz W, Stieglitz RD, Corbisiero S, Retz-Junginger P, Rösler M (October 2012). “Emotional dysregulation in adult ADHD: What is the empirical evidence?". Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics. 12 (10): 1241–1251. doi:10.1586/ern.12.109. PMID 23082740. S2CID 207221320.
  11. ↑ "Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (Easy-to-Read)". National Institute of Mental Health. 2013. Archived from the original on 14 April 2016. Retrieved 17 April 2016.
  12. ↑ Faraone SV (2011). "Ch. 25: Epidemiology of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder". In Tsuang MT, Tohen M, Jones P (eds.). Textbook of Psychiatric Epidemiology (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 450. ISBN 9780470977408. Archived from the original on 22 December 2020. Retrieved 1 February 2016.
  13. ↑ Emond V, Joyal C, Poissant H (April 2009). “[Structural and functional neuroanatomy of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)]" [Structural and functional neuroanatomy of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)]. L'Encephale (in French). 35 (2): 107–114. doi:10.1016/j.encep.2008.01.005. PMID 19393378.
  14. ↑ Singh I (December 2008). “Beyond polemics: science and ethics of ADHD". Nature Reviews. Neuroscience. 9 (12): 957–964. doi:10.1038/nrn2514. PMID 19020513. S2CID 205504587.
  15. ↑ Song, Peige; Zha, Mingming; Yang, Qingwen; Zhang, Yan; Li, Xue; Rudan, Igor (11 February 2021). "The prevalence of adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A global systematic review and meta-analysis". Journal of Global Health. International Global Health Society. 11. doi:10.7189/jogh.11.04009. eISSN 2047-2986. ISSN 2047-2978. OCLC 751737736. PMC 7916320. PMID 33692893.
  16. ↑ "Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder". National Institute of Mental Health. March 2016. Archived from the original on 23 July 2016. Retrieved 5 March 2016.
  17. ↑ "Canadian ADHD Practice Guidelines" (PDF). Canadian ADHD Resource Alliance. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 January 2021. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
  18. ↑ "Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Recommendations". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 24 June 2015. Archived from the original on 7 July 2015. Retrieved 13 July 2015.
  19. ↑ Wolraich ML, Hagan JF, Allan C, Chan E, Davison D, Earls M, et al. (October 2019). "Clinical Practice Guideline for the Diagnosis, Evaluation, and Treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Children and Adolescents". Pediatrics. 144 (4): e20192528. doi:10.1542/peds.2019-2528. PMC 7067282. PMID 31570648.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Wigal SB (2009). [Efficacy and safety limitations of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder pharmacotherapy in children and adults". CNS Drugs. 23 (Suppl 1): 21–31. doi:10.2165/00023210-200923000-00004. PMID 19621975. S2CID 11340058.
  21. ↑ National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (2009). Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Diagnosis and Management of ADHD in Children, Young People and Adults. NICE Clinical Guidelines. Vol. 72. Leicester: British Psychological Society. ISBN 978-1-85433-471-8. Archived from the original on 13 January 2016 – via NCBI Bookshelf.
  22. ↑ Arnold LE, Hodgkins P, Caci H, Kahle J, Young S (February 2015). "Effect of treatment modality on long-term outcomes in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review". PLOS ONE. 10 (2): e0116407. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1016407A. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0116407. PMC 4340791. PMID 25714373.
  23. ↑ Parker J, Wales G, Chalhoub N, Harpin V (September 2013). "The long-term outcomes of interventions for the management of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials". Psychology Research and Behavior Management. 6: 87–99. doi:10.2147/PRBM.S49114. PMC 3785407. PMID 24082796.
  24. ↑ Silver LB (2004). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (3rd ed.). American Psychiatric Publishing. pp. 4–7. ISBN 978-1-58562-131-6.
  25. ↑ Schonwald A, Lechner E (April 2006). “Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: complexities and controversies". Current Opinion in Pediatrics. 18 (2): 189–195. doi:10.1097/01.mop.0000193302.70882.70. PMID 16601502. S2CID 27286123
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